试题库在线考试题库-历年真题模拟试题及答案-考博英语在线试题测试中心-希赛网

广东工业大学

For anthropologists culture has long stood for the way of life of a people，for the sum of their learned behavior patterns, attitudes, and material things. Though they subscribe to this general view, most anthropologists tend to disagree however, on what the precise substance of culture is. In practice their work often leads some of them to a fascination with a single category of events among the many which make up human life, and they tend to think of this as the essence of all culture. Others, looking for a point of stability in the flux of society, often become preoccupied with identifying a common particle or element which can be found in every aspect of culture.From the beginning, culture has been the special province of the anthropologist, who usually gained a firsthand experience of its pervasive power in the field during the internship which follows the prescribed period of classroom training. As fledgling anthropologists moved deeper: and deeper into the life of the people they were studying they inevitably acquired the conviction that culture was real and not just something dreamed up by the theoretician. Moreover, as they slowly mastered the complexities of a given culture they were apt to feel that these complexities could be understood in no other way than by prolonged experience; and that it was almost impossible to communicate this understanding to anyone who had not lived through the same experience.

Together with other activities（1）ritualistic in origin but have come to be designated as artistic（such as music or dance）, painting was one of the earliest ways in which man（2）to express his own personality and his（3）understanding of an existence beyond the material world.（4）music and dance, however, examples of early forms of painting have survived to the present day. The modern eye can derive aesthetic as well as antiquarian satisfaction（5）the 15，000-year-old cave murals of Lascaux —— some examples（6）to the considerable powers of draftsmanship of these early artists. And painting, like other arts， exhibits universal qualities that（7）for viewers of all nations and civilizations to understand and appreciate.　　The major（8）examples of early painting anywhere in the world are found in Western Europe and the Soviet Union. But some 5，000 years ago， the areas in which important paintings were executed（9）to the eastern Mediterranean Sea and neighboring regions.（10），Western shared a European cultural tradition —— the Middle East and Mediterranean Basin and， later， the countries of the New World.　　Western painting is in general distinguished by its concentration（11）the representation of the human（12）， whether in the heroic context of antiquity or the religious context of the early Christian and medieval world. The Renaissance（13）this tradition through a（14）examination of the natural world and an investigation of balance， harmony， and perspective in the visible world， linking painting（15）the developing sciences of anatomy and optics. The first real（16）from figurative painting came with the growth of landscape painting in the 17th and 18th centuries. The landscape and figurative traditions developed together in the 19th century in an atmosphere that was increasingly（17）“painterly” qualities of the（18）of light and color and the expressive qualities of paint handling. In the 20th century these interests（19）to the development of a third major tradition in Western painting， abstract painting， which sought to（20）and express the true nature of paint and painting through action and form.

We can distinguish three different realms of matter, three levels on the quantum ladder. The first is the atomic realm, which includes the world of atoms, their interactions, and the structures that are formed by them, such as molecules, liquids and solids, and gases and plasmas. This realm includes all the phenomena of atomic physics, chemistry, and, in a certain sense, biology. The energy exchanges taking place in this realm are of a relatively low order. If these exchanges are below one electron volt, such as in the collisions between molecules of the air in a room, then atoms and molecules can be regarded as elementary particles. That is, they have “conditional elementarity” because they keep their identity and do not change in any collisions or in other processes at these low energy exchanges. If one goes to higher energy exchanges, say 104 electron volts, then atoms and molecules will decompose into nuclei and electrons; at this level, the latter particles must be considered as elementary. We find examples of structures and processes of this first rung of the quantum ladder on Earth, on planets, and on the surfaces of stars.The next rung is the nuclear realm. Here the energy exchanges are much higher, on the order of millions of electron volts. As long as we are dealing with phenomena in the atomic realm, such amounts of energy are unavailable, and most nuclei are inert: they do not change. However, if one applies energies of millions of electron volts, nuclear reactions, fission and fusion, and the processes of radioactivity occur; our elementary particles then are protons, neutrons, and electrons. In addition, nuclear processes produce neutrinos, particles that have no detectable mass or charge. In the universe, energies at this level are available in the centers of stars and in star explosions. Indeed, the energy radiated by the stars is produced by nuclear reactions. The natural radioactivity we find on Earth is the long-lived remnant of the time when now-earthly matter was expelled into space by a major stellar explosion.The third rung of the quantum ladder is the subnuclear realm. Here we are dealing with energy exchanges of many billions of electron volts. We encounter excited nucleons, new types of particles such as mesons, heavy electrons, quarks, and gluons, and also antimatter in large quantities. The gluons are the quanta, or smallest units, of the force（the strong force）that keeps the quarks together. As long as we are dealing with the atomic or nuclear realm, these new types of particles do not occur and the nucleons remain inert. But at subnuclear energy levels, the nucleons and mesons appear to be composed of quarks, so that the quarks and gluons figure as elementary particles.1. The primary topic of the passage is（）.2. According to the passage, radioactivity that occurs naturally on Earth is the result of（）.3. According to the passage, which of the following can be found in the atomic realm?4. According to the author, gluons are not（）.5. The passage speaks of particles as having conditional elementarity if they（）.

In the idealized version of how science is done, facts about the world are waiting to be observed and collected by objective researchers who use the scientific method to carry out their work. But in the everyday practice of science, discovery frequently follows an ambiguous and complicated route. We aim to be objective, but we cannot escape the context of our unique life experience. Prior knowledge and interest influence what we experience, what we think our experiences mean, and the subsequent actions we take. Opportunities for misinterpretation, error, and self-deception abound.Consequently, discovery claims should be thought of as protoscience. Similar to newly staked mining claims, they are full of potential. But it takes collective scrutiny and acceptance to transform a discovery claim into a mature discovery. This is the credibility process, through which the individual researcher5s me, here, now becomes the community’s anyone, anywhere, anytime. Objective knowledge is the goal, not the starting point.Once a discovery claim becomes public, the discoverer receives intellectual credit. But, unlike with mining claims, the community takes control of what happens next. Within the complex social structure of the scientific community, researchers make discoveries; editors and reviewers act as gatekeepers by controlling the publication process; other scientists use the new finding to suit their own purposes; and finally, the public（including other scientists）receives the new discovery and possibly accompanying technology. As a discovery claim works it through the community, the interaction and confrontation between shared and competing beliefs about the science and the technology involved transforms an individual’s discovery claim into the community’s credible discovery.Two paradoxes exist throughout this credibility process. First, scientific work tends to focus on some aspect of prevailing Knowledge that is viewed as incomplete or incorrect. Little reward accompanies duplication and confirmation of what is already known and believed. The goal is new-search，not re-search. Not surprisingly, newly published discovery claims and credible discoveries that appear to be important and convincing will always be open to challenge and potential modification or refutation by future researchers. Second，novelty itself frequently provokes disbelief. Nobel Laureate and physiologist Albert Azent-Gyorgyi once described discovery as “seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.” But thinking what nobody else has thought and telling others what they have missed may not change their views. Sometimes years are required for truly novel discovery claims to be accepted and appreciated.In the end, credibility “happens” to a discovery claim - a process that corresponds to what philosopher Annette Baier has described as the commons of the mind. “We reason together, challenge, revise, and complete each, other’s reasoning and each other’s conceptions of reason.”1. According to the first paragraph, the process of discovery is characterized by its（）.2. It can be inferred from Paragraph 2 that credibility process requires（）.3. Paragraph 3 shows that a discovery claim becomes credible after it（）.4. Albert Szent-Gyorgyi would most likely agree that（）.5. Which of the following would be the best title of the test?

Of all the components of a good night's sleep, dreams seem to be least within our control. In dreams, a window opens into a world where logic is suspended and dead people speak. A century ago, Freud formulated his revolutionary theory that dreams were the disguised shadows of our unconscious desires and fears; by the late 1970s, neurologists had switched to thinking of them as just “mental noise”-- the random byproducts of the neural-repair work that goes on during sleep. Now researchers suspect that dreams are part of the mind's emotional thermostat, regulating moods while the brain is “off-line”. And one leading authority says that these intensely powerful mental events can be not only harnessed but actually brought under conscious control, to help us sleep and feel better. “It's your dream,” says Rosalind Cartwright, chair of psychology at Chicago's Medical Center. “If you don't like it, change it.”Evidence from brain, imaging supports this view. The brain is as active during REM（rapid eye movement）sleep -- when most vivid dreams occur — as it is when fully awake, says Dr. Eric Nofzinger at the University of Pittsburgh. But not all parts of the brain are equally involved; the limbic system（the “emotional brain”）is especially active, while the prefrontal cortex（the center of intellect and reasoning）is relatively quiet. “We wake up from dreams happy or depressed, and those feelings can stay with us all day，” says Stanford sleep researcher Dr. William Dement.The link between dreams and emotions shows up among the patients in Cartwright’s clinic. Most people seem to have more bad dreams early in the night, progressing toward happier ones before awakening, suggesting that they are working through negative feelings generated during the day. Because our conscious mind is occupied with daily life, we don’t always think about the emotional significance of the day’s events until, it appears, we begin to dream.And this process need not be left to the unconscious. Cartwright believes one can exercise conscious control over recurring bad dreams. As soon as you awaken, identify what is upsetting about the dream. Visualize how you would like it to end instead; the next time it occurs, try to wake up just enough to control its course. With much practice people can learn to, literally, do it in their sleep.At the end of the day, there's probably little reason to pay attention to our dreams at all unless they keep us from sleeping or “we wake up in a panic,” Cartwright says. Terrorism, economic uncertainties and general feelings of insecurity have increased people's anxiety. Those suffering from persistent nightmares should seek help from a therapist. For the rest of us, the brain has its ways of working through bad feelings. Sleep—or rather dream — on it and you'll feel better in the morning.1. Researchers have come to believe that dreams（）.2. By referring to the limbic system, the author intends to show（）.3. The negative feelings generated during the day tend to（）.4. Cartwright seems to suggest that（）.5. What advice might Cartwright give to those who sometimes have bad dreams?

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