中央民族大学
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“War is hell,” said General Sherman, a commander in the American Civil War. This statement accurately describes the bloody campaign that he waged. Yet it was this war which marked the beginning of the modern laws of warfare. At the end of the Civil War in 1865 Henry Wirz, a former confederate officer, was tried and convicted for ill-treating and murdering prisoners.There had been rules before, but this war saw the introduction of a formal and comprehensive code to guide troops in the field. These ideas have been progressively refined, first in The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and then in the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and 1977.Armies have often adopted procedures for the punishment of war criminals. Initially, they were designed to discipline soldiers and were mostly conducted by the authorities of the state to which the offenders belonged. However, towards the end of the Second World War, it became clear that the outrages committed by the Nazi regime in Germany — such as the Holocaust, in which an estimated six million Jews were killed — and by the Japanese were so great that those responsible should, in a sense, be tried by all mankind. Thus, in October 1943, two years before the end of the Second World War, representatives of the Allied nations, led by Britain and the United States, met in London and established a commission to investigate such outrages.Three categories of offence were established, which loosely, came to be defined as “war crimes”. They were: crimes against peace, such as the plotting of war against non-aggressive countries; violations of the customs and laws of war, such as the murder of prisoners, hostages and civilians; and crimes against humanity, which include extermination, enslavement and other inhumane acts committed against any civilian population. With the Germans defeated, the Allied leaders decided to try Nazi leaders for a series of war crimes. The first session of the hearing took place in Berlin in October 1945. Charges were lodged against 24 former Nazi leaders. They were charged with crimes against peace, war crimes, genocide, and the wanton destruction of towns and cities.In November 1945 the hearings were moved to the German town of Nuremberg. Three of the defendants were acquitted; twelve were sentenced to death; three were sentenced to life imprisonment; and four were sentenced to imprisonment for between ten and twenty years. The decision of the tribunal was unanimous. A similar trial was also held of Japanese war leaders and 25 of them were convicted for crimes committed in Asia.1. General Sherman（ ）.2. In 1943, （ ）.3. War crimes doesn’t include （ ）.4. Which of the following statement is true according to the passage?5. The best title for this passage is（ ）.
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Most British newspapers are not necessarily careful about language, but they are careful about bad words anyway. The phrase “family newspaper” is an inevitable part of our lives. Newspapers are not in the business of giving unjustified offence. It is a limitation of newspaper writing, and everybody in the business, whether writing or reading, understands and accepts. There are many other necessary limitations, and most of these concern time and space.Newspapers have dominated sportswriting in Britain for years. But ten years ago, a new player entered the game. This was the phenomenon of men’s magazines. GQ was the pioneer and it leads the way still, leaving the rest panting distantly in its wake.Sports, of course, a blindingly obvious subject for a men’s magazine — but it could not be tackled in a blindingly obvious way. Certainly, one of the first things GQ was able to offer was a new way of writing about sport, but this was not so much a cunning plan as a necessity. The magazine was doomed, as it were, to offer a whole new range of freedoms to its sportswriters. Freedom of vocabulary was simply the most obvious one and, inevitably, it appealed to the schoolboy within us. But space and time were the others, and these possibilities meant that the craft of sportswriting had to be reinvented.Unlike newspapers, a magazine can offer a decent length of time to research and to write. These are, you would think, luxuries — especially to those of us who are often required to read an 800-word match report over the telephone the instant the final whistle has gone. No one expects a masterpiece under such circumstances. But a long magazine deadline gives you the disconcerting and agoraphobic freedom to research, to write, to think.GQ is not restricted by the same conventions of reader expectation as a newspaper. You need not worry about offending people or alienating them; the whole ethos of the magazine is that readers are there to be challenged. There will be readers who would find some of its pieces offensive or even impossible in a newspaper, or even in a different magazine. But the same readers will read the piece in GQ and find it enthralling.That is because the magazine is always slightly uncomfortable to be with. It is not like a cozy member of the family, nor even like a friend. It is the strong, self-opinionated person that you can never quite make up your mind whether you like or not. You admire him, but you are slightly uneasy with him. The people around him might not altogether approve of everything he says; some might not care for him at all. But they feel compelled to listen. The self-confidence is too compelling. And just when you think be is beginning to become rather a bore, he surprises you with his genuine intelligence. He makes a broad joke, and then suddenly he is demanding you follow him in the turning of an intellectual somersault.1. What does the writer say about newspapers in the first paragraph?2. What does the writer imply in the second paragraph?3. Why were sportswriters for GQ given new freedoms?4. Why can’t writers for GQ use the same methods as writers for newspapers?5. The writer likens GQ magazine to a person who（ ）
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Our culture has caused most Americans to assume not only that our language is universal but that the gestures we use are understood by everyone. We do not realize that waving goodbye is the way to summon a person from the Philippines to one’s side, or that in Italy and some Latin-American countries, curling the finger to oneself is a sign of farewell.Those private citizens who sent packages to our troops occupying Germany after World War II and marked them GIFT to escape duty payments did not bother to find out that “Gift” means poison in German. Moreover, we like to think of ourselves as friendly, yet we prefer to be at least 3 feet or an arm’s length away from others. Latins and Middle Easterners like to come closer and touch, which makes Americans uncomfortable.Our linguistic and cultural blindness and the casualness with which we take notice of the developed tastes, gestures, customs and languages of other countries, are losing our friends, business and respect in the world.Even here in the United States, we make few concessions to the needs of foreign visitors. There are no information signs in four languages on our public buildings or monuments; we do not have multilingual guided tours. Very few restaurant menus have translations, and multilingual waiters, bank clerks and policemen are rare. Our transportation systems have maps in English only and often we ourselves have difficulty understanding them.When we go abroad, we tend to cluster in hotels and restaurants where English is spoken. The attitudes and information we pick up are conditioned by those natives — usually the richer — who speak English. Our business dealings, as well as the nation’s diplomacy, are conducted through interpreters.For many years, America and Americans could get by with cultural blindness and linguistic ignorance. After all, America was the most powerful country of the free world, the distributor of needed funds and goods.But all that is past. American dollars no longer buy all good things, and we are slowly beginning to realize that our proper role in the world is changing. A 1979 Harris poll reported that 55 percent of Americans want this country to play a more significant role in world affairs; we want to have a hand in the important decisions of the next century, even though it may not always be the upper hand.1. It can be inferred that Americans being approached too closely by Middle Easterners would most probably （ ）.2. The author gives many examples to criticize Americans for their （ ）.3. In countries other than their own, most Americans （ ）.4. According to the author, Americans’ cultural blindness and linguistic ignorance will （ ）.5. The author’s intention in writing this article is to make Americans realize that （ ）.
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Most people can remember a phone number for up to thirty seconds. When this short amount of time passes, however, the numbers are erased from the memory. How did the information get there in the first place? Information that makes its way to the short term memory (STM) does so via the sensory storage area. The brain has a filter which only allows stimulation that is of immediate interest to pass on to the STM, also known as the working memory.There is much debate about the capacity and duration of the short term memory. The most accepted theory comes from George A. Miller, a cognitive psychologist who suggested that humans can remember approximately seven chunks of information. A chunk is defined as a meaningful unit of information, such as a word or name rather than just a letter or number. Modern theorists suggest that one can increase the capacity of the short term memory by chunking, or classifying similar information together. By organizing information, one can improve the STM, and improve the chances of a memory being passed on to long term storage.When making a conscious effort to memorize something, such as information for an exam, many people engage in “rote rehearsal”. By repeating something over and over again, we are able to keep a memory alive. Unfortunately, this type of memory maintenance only succeeds if there are no interruptions. As soon as a person stops rehearsing the information, it has the tendency to disappear. When a pen and paper are not handy, you might attempt to remember a phone number by repeating it aloud. If the doorbell rings or the dog barks to come in before you get the opportunity to make your phone call, you will forget the number instantly. Therefore, rote rehearsal is not an efficient way to pass information from the short term to long term memory. A better way is to practice “elaborate rehearsal”. This involves assigning semantic meaning to a piece of information so that it can be filed along with other pre-existing long term memories.Encoding information semantically also makes it more retrievable. Retrieving information can be done by recognition or recall. Humans can recall memories that are stored in the long term memory and used often. However, if a memory seems to be forgotten, it may eventually be retrieved by prompting. The more cues a person is given (such as pictures), the more likely a memory can be retrieved. This is why multiple choice tests are often used for subjects that require a lot of memorization.1. According to the passage, how do memories get transferred to the STM?2. How do theorists believe a person can remember more information in a short time?3. Why does the author mention a dog’s bark?4. Which of the following is true about retrieving information?5. Which of the following is true according to the passage?
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One of the most dangerous drugs for pregnant women to consume is alcohol. Because alcohol is (1) quickly into the blood and passes quickly into the (2) and membranes, the human fetus is particularly (3) to its effect. In fact, the negative effects on a fetus are so (4) that babies born after (5) to alcohol are said to be suffering from fetal alcohol (6).(7) a pregnant woman drinks alcohol, the alcohol, is passed into the bloodstream almost (8). Moreover, because the bloodstream of the fetus is (9) that of the mother, the alcohol passes directly into the fetus as well. (10), what’s more, the (11) of alcohol in the fetus is exactly the same as in the mother.For the mother, this concentration is not a problem because her liver can (12) one ounce of alcohol from her system per hour. However, the fetus’ liver is not completely (13). The rate at which it is able to (14) the alcohol from the blood of the fetus is much slower. (15), the alcohol will be returned to the mother’s system by passing across the placenta, but this process is slow. By the time this (16), major neurological damage may have already (17). Research has shown that as little as one drink of alcohol can produce significant, (18) damage to the fetus.Babies born after exposure to alcohol generally (19) facial distortion, inability to concentrate, and difficulty in remembering. Simply speaking, it is (20) that pregnant women avoid alcohol.
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