试题库在线考试题库-历年真题模拟试题及答案-考博英语在线试题测试中心-希赛网

湖南大学

Why the inductive and mathematical sciences, after their first rapid development at the culmination of Greek civilization, advanced so slowly for two thousand years-and why in the following two hundred years a knowledge of natural and mathematical science has accumulated, which so vastly exceeds all that was previously known that these sciences may be justly regarded as the products of our own times---are questions which have interested the modernm philosopher not less than the objects with which these sciences are more immediately conversant. Was it the employment of a new method of research, or in the exercise of greater virtue in the use of the old methods, that this singular modernm phenomenon had its origin? Was the long period one of arrested development, and is the modernm era one of normal growth? Or should we ascribe the characteristics of both periods to so-called historical accidents-to the influence of conjunctions in circumstances of which no explanation is possible, save in the omnipotence and wisdom of a guiding Providence?The explanation which has become commonplace, that the ancients employed deduction chiefly in their scientific inquiries, while the modernms employ induction, proves to be too narrow, and fails upon close examination to point with sufficient distinctness the contrast that is evident between ancient and modernm scientific doctrines and inquiries. For all knowledge is founded on observation, and proceeds from this by analysis, by synthesis and analysis, by induction and deduction, and if possible by verification, or by new appeals to observation under the guidance of deduction-by steps which are indeed correlative parts of one method; and the ancient sciences afford examples of every one of these methods, or parts of one method, which have been generalized from the examples of science.A failure to employ or to employ adequately any one of these partial methods, an imperfection in the arts and resources of observation and experiment, carelessness in observation, neglect of relevant facts, by appeal to experiment and observation-these are the faults which cause all failures to ascertain truth, whether among the ancients or the modernms; but this statement does not explain why the modernm is possessed of a greater virtue, and by what means he attained his superiority. Much less does it explain the sudden growth of science in recent times.The attempt to discover the explanation of this phenomenon in the antithesis of “”facts"” and “"theories"” or “’’facts” and “”ideas”n-in the neglect among the ancients of the former, and their too exclusive attention to the latter- proves also to be too narrow, as well as open to the charge of vagueness. For in the first place, the antithesis is not complete. Facts and theories are not coordinate species. Theories, if true, are facts-a particular class of facts indeed, generally complex, and if a logical connection subsists between their constituents, have all the positive attributes of theories.Nevertheless, this distinction, however inadequate it may be to explain the source of true method in science, is well founded, and connotes an important character in true method. A fact is a proposition of simple. A theory, on the other hand, if true has all the characteristics of a fact, except that its verification is possible only by indirect, remote, and difficult means. To convert theories into facts is to add simple verification, and the theory thus acquires the full characteristics of a fact.1.The title that best expresses the ideas of this passage is（） .2.The difference between “fact” and “theory"’ .3.The statement “Theories are facts’’ may be called（）4.According to the author, mathematics is（） .5.According to the author, one possible reason for the growth of science during the days of the ancient Greeks and in modern times is（） .

A third of breads contain more salt than recommended under guidelines being introduced next year, a survey found.Most breads were within the current guidelines of l.lg of salt per 100g-but this is being cut to lg per l00g. Campaign for Action on Salt and Health (CASH), which looked at 300 breads, said it was “outrageous” that bread contained even the current level. The Department of Health said ’’considerable" salt reductions had already been made. Manufacturers said many loaves with the lowest salt levels were supermarket brands, which were the most popular. Eating too much salt is linked to high blood pressure, which in turn increases the risk of developing heart disease.Recommended dietary salt levels vary with age. Adults are meant to have no more than 6g of salt in their diet per day, while toddlers should have no more than 2g.Salt levels in bread have fallen by about a third over the past decade, with some falling by up to 40%. But CASH says levels are still too high, and warns there is wide variation in the amount found in loaves. Most are within half a gram of the current target of l.lg of salt per l00g of bread about two hick slices. But CASH found some significantly exceeded it. CASH says consumers should look at nutrition labels, where possible, to see how much salt bread contains. But it warns fresh breads, from in-store or high-street bakeries have no nutritional labeling, meaning people cannot tell how much salt they contain. And it said bakery breads often had higher levels than their packaged products.CASH chairman Prof. Graham MacGregor, of the Wolfs on Institute of Preventative Medicine, said: "It is frankly outrageous that bread still contains so much salt. The Department of Health needs to ensure that all bread is clearly labeled and that all manufacturers reduce the salt of bread to less that the salt target of lg per l00g. It is the very high levels of salt that is hidden in everyday food, such as bread, that puts up both adults' and children's blood pressure. “Victoria Taylor, senior dietitian at the British Heart Foundation, said: "We know too many people are eating too much salt each day. Some manufacturers are working towards targets for salt reduction, but we need more action to cut the salt content in bread and make sure they provide colour-coded food labels to help their customers." But Federation of Bakers director Gordon Polson said: "The majority of wrapped sliced bread available already meets the 2012 targets and our members are continuing to endeavour to reduce salt by contributing to ongoing research to establish which other means are available to reduce salt in bread. The vast majority of breads singled out in the CASH report as higher in salt are not the mainstream products produced by our members; which do produce around 80% of the nation's bread in a £3 bn industry.nA Department of Health spokesman said the government welcomed the ’’considerable" salt reductions that bread makers had already made, and it was "very pleasing" that around 60% of the products met salt targets for 2012. "This is an important step in helping to reduce salt intake, as well as lowering the risk of high blood pressure and resulting strokes and heart disease. We look forward to seeing further reductions as more companies meet the targets,” he added.British Retail Consortium food director Andrew Opie said retailers and manufacturers are to fond independent research to look for ways of meeting the 2012 target- "while still making foods which consumers want to buy”.1.What’s Gordon Polson’s attitude toward the majority of wrapped, sliced bread available?2.According to CASH, the current salt levels of bread are （）.3.CASH suggests that（） .4.According to the passage, which of the following statements is CORRECT?5.What are the harmful effects of too much salt according to CASH?

Recent research has claimed that an excess of positive ions in the air can have an ill effect on people’s physical or psychological health. What are positive ions? Well, the air is full of ions, electrically charged particles, and generally there is a rough balance between the positive and the negative charged. But sometimes this balance becomes disturbed and a larger proportion of positive ions are found. This happens naturally before thunderstorm, earthquakes when winds such as the mistral, hamsin or sharav are blowing in certain countries. Or it can be caused by a build-up of static electricity indoors from carpets or clothing made of man-made fibers, or from TV sets, duplicators or computer display screens.When a large number of positive ions are present in the air many people experience unpleasant effects such as headaches, fatigue, irritability, and some particularly sensitive people suffer nausea or even mental disturbance. Animals are also affected, particularly before earthquakes, snakes have been observed to come out of hibernation, rats to flee from their burrows, dogs howl and cats jump about unaccountably. This has led the US geographical survey to fund a network of volunteers to watch animals in an effort to foresee such disasters before they hit vulnerable areas such as California.Conversely, when large numbers of negative ions are present, then people have a feeling of well-being. Natural conditions that produce these large amounts are near the sea, close to waterfalls or fountains, or in any place where water is sprayed, or forms a spray. This probably accounts for the beneficial effect of a holiday by the sea, or in the mountains with tumbling streams or waterfalls.To increase the supply of negative ions indoors, some scientists recommend the use of ionizers: small portable machines, which generate negative ions. They claim that ionizers not only clean and refresh the air but also improve the health of people sensitive to excess positive ions. Of course, there are the detractors, other scientists, who dismiss such claims and are skeptical about negative/positive ion research. Therefore people can only make up their own minds by observing the effects on themselves, or on others, of a negative rich or poor environment. After all it is debatable whether depending on seismic readings to anticipate earthquakes is more effective than watching the cat.1.What effect does exceeding positive ionization have on some people?2.A high negative ion count is likely to be found（） .3.Some scientists believe that（） .4.What kind of machine can generate negative ions indoors?5.In accordance with the passage, static electricity can be caused by （）.

A classical series of experiments to determine the effects of overpopulation on communities of rats was conducted by a psychologist, John Calhoun. In each experiment, an equal number of male and female adult rats were placed in an enclosure. The rat population were allowed to increase. Calhoun knew from experience approximately how many rats could live in the enclosures without experiencing stress due to overcrowding. He allowed the population to increase to approximately twice this number. Then he stabilized the population by removing offspring that were not dependent on their mothers. At the end of the experiments, Calhoun was able to conclude that overcrowding causes a breakdown in the normal social relationships among rats, a kind of social disease. The rats in the experiments did not follow the same patterns of behavior as rat would in a community without overcrowding.The females in the rat population were the most seriously affected by the high population density. For example, mothers sometimes abandoned their pups, and without their mother’s care, the pups died. The experiments verified that in overpopulated communities, mothers rates do not behave normally. Their behavior may be considered diseased pathological.The dominant males in the rat population were the least affected by overpopulation. Each of these strong males claimed an area of the enclosure as his own. Therefore, these individuals did not experience the overcrowding in the same way as the other rats did. However, dominant males did behave pathologically at times. Their antisocial behavior consisted of attacks on weaker male, female, and immature rats. This deviant behavior showed that even though the dominant male had enough living space, they too were affected by the general overcrowding.Nondominant males in the experimental rat communities also exhibited deviant social behavior. Some withdrew completely, avoiding contact with other rats. Other nondominant males were hyperactive, chasing other rats and fighting each other. The behavior of the rat population has parallels in human behavior. People in densely populated areas exhibit deviant behavior similar to that of the rats in Calhoun's experiments. In Large urban areas; such as New York City, London, and Cairo, there are abandoned children. There are cruel, powerful individual, both men and women. There are also people who withdraw and people who become hyperactive. Is the principal cause of these disorders overpopulation? Calhoun’s experiments suggest that it might be. In any case, social scientists and city planners have been influenced by the results of this series of experiments.1.Calhoun stabilized the rat population（） .2.Which of the following inferences CANNOT be made from the information in Paragraph I?3.The main idea of this passage is that（）4.According to the passage, which of the following is NOT true?5.The author implies that the behavior of the dominant male rats is sometimes parallel to that of （）.

We all want to stand first in line, first in the hearts of our country, first in the polls, first in the standings. The （1）of Number One is surely an important thing in sports, but for universities, being first is not as important as being （2） the best. The twenty-first century shows no （3）of interest among researchers, institutions, donors, boards of trustees, and governments in using various university rankings to （4）the performance of higher education institutions. Most national research universities measure themselves （5）a wide range of dimensions that the institutions believe important for determining improvement and success. At the same time, no single indicator or composite number （6） represents what an individual institution has done, can do, or will do. To improve the quality and productivity of a （7）national research university, its faculty, students, staff, and supporters need to （8） a number of indicators that,（9）together, give a reasonable approximation of accomplishment and strength （10）to the best universities in the country.Many indicators （11） this purpose, but most observers know that research （12） more than anything else in （13） the best institutions. In its annual reports, The Center provides both the （14） research and development expenditures and the highly-competitive federally （15）research and development expenditures as indicators of research scale. （16）the dollars give a good approximation of research activity, （17） is the faculty who provide the critical resource for university success, and The Center reports the number of members of the National Academies among an institution’s faculty along with the number of significant faculty awards earned as indicators of faculty distinction. Students provide a （18）indicator by reflecting both the externally perceived quality of the institution and （19） with their own credentials an important contribution to that quality. For the graduate and research instructional dimension, The Center provides the number of doctorates （20）and the number of postdoctoral appointments supported; and The Center offers median SAT scores as indicators of student competitiveness.

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